A Meticulous Perspective...

EXPERIMENT - 1A   FOURIER SERIES clc clear all close all syms x f=input( "Enter the function of x: " ) I=input( "Enter the interval [a,b]: " ) m=input( 'Enter the number of Harmonics required: ' ) a=I(1); b=I(2); L=(b-a)/2; a0=(1/L)*int(f,a,b); Fx=a0/2; for n=1:m     figure;     an(n)=(1/L)*int(f*cos(n*pi*x/L),a,b);     bn(n)=(1/L)*int(f*sin(n*pi*x/L),a,b);     Fx=Fx+an(n)*cos(n*pi*x/L)+bn(n)*sin(n*pi*x/L);     Fx=vpa(Fx,4);     ezplot(Fx,[a,b]);     hold on     ezplot(f,[a,b]);     title([ 'Fourier Series with ' ,num2str(n), 'harmonics' ]);     legend( 'Fourier Series' , 'Function Plot' );     hold off end disp(strcat( 'Fourier series with' , num2str(n), 'harmonics is: ' ,char(Fx)))     HARMONIC ANALYSIS   clear all clc syms t x...

 

 

A battery is an arrangement of several electrochemical cells connected in series that can be used as a source of direct electric current. A cell is one that contains only one anode and cathode, but a battery contains several anodes and cathodes.   TYPES OF BATTERIES: (a) Primary Battery or Primary Cells In the case of a primary battery, the electrode and the electrode reactions cannot be reversed by passing an external electrical energy. The reactions occur only once and after use, they become dead. Therefore, they are not rechargeable. Example: Dry cell, Mercury cell (b) Secondary Battery or Secondary Cells In case of a Secondary battery, the electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external electrical energy. Therefore, they can be recharged by passing an electrical current and used again again. These are called storage cells or accumulators. Example: Lead-acid storage cell, nickel-cadmium cell

  ADVANTAGES of Reverse Osmosis: This method has greater advantages of removing ionic, non-ionic, colloidal and high-molecular weight organic matter. The lifetime of the membrane is quite high (2 years). The membrane can be replaced within a few minutes. It provides nearly uninterrupted water supply. Due to low capital cost, low operating cost and high reliability, this method is superior than other methods. DISADVANTAGES of Reverse Osmosis: Reverse Osmosis plays a major role in providing portable water defined by the WHO criterion of < 500 ppm of total dissolved solids (TDS). Extremely high-quality water required for nuclear power plants can be made from sea water by the reverse-osmosis process. Sugar concentration, waste-water recovery and beverage uses are a few of the current popular applications of the reverse-osmosis process.

  It is a membrane process by which water is separated from saline water. Osmosis is defined as the spontaneous flow of 'water' from dilute to more concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane. The driving force in this phenomenon is called osmotic pressure . A semipermeable membrane is one which permits only water molecules to pass through it. Examples of semipermeable membranes are cellulose acetate, polyamide, polymide, etc. This natural process can be reversed by applying pressure higher than the osmotic pressure on the concentrated side. Thus the solvent is forced to move from concentrated side to dilute side across the membrane. This principle is known as r everse osmosis. In the reverse osmosis process, the pure water (free from ions) is separated from the contaminated brine water (salty water). This membrane filtration is also called super filtration (or) hyper filtration. For advantages and disadvantages of reverse osmosis refer  https://meticulousperspecti...

  ZEOLITES: Zeolites are naturally occuring hydrated sodium alumino silicate minerals. LIMITATIONS of Zeolite Process: If the supplied water is turbid, the suspended matter must be removed first by coagulation, filtration, etc. Otherwise, the turbidity will clog the pores of zeolite bed making it inactive. If the water contains coloured ions (Mn2+, Fe2+), these ions should be removed first because these ions produce manganese and iron zeolite, which cannot be regenerated. If any mineral acid present in the water, it will destroy the zeolite bed, therefore it is neutralised first with soda (Na2CO3). ADVANTAGES of Zeolite Process: Water quality of below 5 ppm hardness is obtained. This equipment is compact and occupies small space. It requires less time for softening.  It requires less skill for maintenance and operation. No sludge is formed during this process. Its operation is also easy. DISADVANTAGES of Zeolite Process: This process cannot be used for turbid and acidic water ...

  Zeolites are naturally occuring hydrated sodium alumino silicate minerals.  Na2O. Al2O3. xSiO2. yH2O where x = 2 to 10 and   y = 2 to 6. Natural zeolites are nonporous. The synthetic form of zeolite is known as permutit. Synthetic zeolite is represented by Na2Ze. Synthetic zeolites are porous and have a jelly structure. They are prepared by heating together china clay, feldspar and soda ash. These zeolites have higher exchange capacity per unit weight than natural zeolites. In this synthetic zeolite process, the hard water is allowed to percolate through sodium zeolite. The sodium ions which are loosely held in Na2Ze are replaced by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in the water. Process: In   this process , the hard water is passed through a bed of sodium zeolite (Na2Ze). The hardness-causing ions (Ca2+, Mg2+) in hard water is replaced by loosely held sodium ions in zeolite bed. The outgoing soft water contains only sodium ions. Na2Ze + Ca(HCO3)2  --> CaZe +...

  Hardness is the characteristic of water which does not give good lather with soap. This property of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium and other salts. Some important disadvantages of hard water are the following: Hard water is not useful for various domestic purposes, viz washing, bathing, drinking, etc. The ions responsible for the hardness convert soluble soaps to insoluble precipitates. This causes wastage of soap in washing and bathing. Also, presence of iron salts may result in staining of cloth. Hard water is harmful for many industries such as textile, sugar, paper, laundry, etc. Dissolved calcium, magnesium and iron salts may react and affect the following properties: May cause coloured spots on fabrics in textile industry.  May cause difficulties in the crystallisation of sugar in sugar industry. May cause wastage of lot of soap in laundry. Giving a smooth and glossy finish to paper in paper industry.  H...

  Galvanizing is the process of coating of zinc or iron or stainless steel sheets. Process: The iron or stainless-steel article surface is first cleaned by acid pickling with dilute H2SO4 solution for 15-20 minutes at 60-90 degree celsius. This treatment removes any scale, rust (oxide layer) and impurities on the metal surface. The article is then washed well with water and dried. It is then dipped in the bath containing molten zinc maintained at 425-430 degree celsius. The surface of the bath is kept covered with a flux, i.e. ammonium chloride, which is used for cleaning the surface of the metal and also to prevent oxide formation. When the article is taken ort, it is found to have been coated with a thin layer of zinc. In order to get uniform thickness, it is passed through a pair of hot rollers, which removes any superfluous (excess) of zinc. Then, it is annealed at a temperature of 650 degree celsius and finally, cooled slowly. Uses: It is most widely used for protection of iro...

Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of biofuel. Biogas is made from organic waste matter after it is decomposed. The decomposition breaks down the organic matter, releasing various gases. The main gases released are methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. Bacteria carry out the decomposition or fermentation. The conditions for creating biogas have to be anaerobic. That is without any air and in the presence of water. The organic waste matter is generally animal or cattle dung, plant wastes, etc. These waste products contain carbohydrates, proteins and fat material that are broken down by bacteria. The waste matter is soaked in water to give the bacteria a proper medium to grow. Absence of air or oxygen is important for decomposition because bacteria then take oxygen from the waste material itself and in the process break them down. The c...

LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and butane with a small percentage of unsaturates (propylene and butylene)and some lighter C2 as well as heavier C5 fraction. Included in the LPG range are propane, propylene, normal and isobutane and butylene. It is obtained as one of the top fractions in the fractional distillation of petroleum. LPG may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous at normal atmospheric pressure, but may be condensed to the liquid state at normal temperature, by the application of moderate pressures.  Although they are normally used as gases, they are stored and transported as liquids under pressure for convenience and ease of handling. Liquids under pressure for convenience and ease of handling. Liquid LPG on evaporation produces 250 times more volume of gas. Composition of LPG: n-butane = 70% Isobutane = 17% n-propane = 11% Butylene and ethane = rest Calorific Value: Its calorific value is 27,000 kcal/m3. Uses: Used as a fuel for domestic cooking. U...

  The chemical energy stored as nutrients in the bodies and wastes of organisms flows through ecosystems from one trophic (feeding) level to another. For example, a plant uses solar energy to store chemical energy in a leaf. A caterpillar eats the leaf, a robin eats the caterpillar, and a hawk eats the robin. Decomposers and detritus feeders consume the wastes and remains of all members of this and other food chains and return their nutrients to the soil for reuse by producers. A sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of food or energy for the next, is called a food chain . It determines how chemical energy and nutrients move along the same pathways from one organism to another through the trophic levels in an ecosystem—primarily through photosynthesis, feeding, and decomposition. Every use and transfer of energy by organisms involves a loss of some degraded high-quality energy to the environment as heat. In natural ecosystems, most consumers feed on more than one ...

  Forces inside the earth’s mantle and near its surface push, stress, and deform rocks. At some point the stress can cause the rocks to suddenly shift or break and produce a transform fault, or fracture in the earth’s crust. When a fault forms, or when there is abrupt movement on an existing fault, energy that has accumulated over time is released in the form of vibrations, called seismic waves , which move in all directions through the surrounding rock. This internal geological process is called an earthquake .  Most earthquakes occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates , when colliding plates create tremendous pressures in the earth’s crust or when plates slide past one another at transform faults. The place where an earthquake begins, often far below the earth’s surface is called the focus . The earthquake’s epicenter is located on the earth’s surface directly above the focus. The energy of the earth’s tremendous internal stress is released in the form of seismic (shock) ...

  Forests provide highly valuable ecological and economic services. For example, through photosynthesis, forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in organic compounds (biomass). By performing this ecological service as a part of the global carbon cycle, forests help to stabilize average atmospheric temperatures and slow projected climate change. Forests also provide us with oxygen, hold soil in place, and aid in aquifer recharge and flood control. Scientists have attempted to estimate the economic value of this and other ecological services provided by the world’s forests and other ecosystems. ECOLOGICAL SERVICES PROVIDED BY FORESTS: Support energy flow and chemical cycling. Reduce soil erosion. Absorb and release water. Purify water and air. Influence local and regional climate. Store atmospheric carbon. Provide numerous wildlife habitats. ECONOMICAL SERVICES PROVIDED BY FORESTS: Fuelwood Lumber Pulp to make paper Mining Livestock grazing Recreation Jobs

  Forests are lands dominated by trees. The three main types of forest—tropical, temperate, and cold (northern coniferous, or boreal)—result from combinations of varying precipitation levels and varying average temperatures. 1. TROPICAL FORESTS: Tropical rain forests are found near the equator, where hot, moisture-laden air rises and dumps its moisture. These lush forests have year around, uniformly warm temperatures, high humidity, and almost daily heavy rainfall. This fairly constant warm and wet climate is ideal for a wide variety of plants and animals. These forests are often called jungle, but that word refers to the thickest and most dense parts of a tropical rain forest. Tropical rain forests have a very high net primary productivity. They are teeming with life and possess incredible biological diversity. Although tropical rain forests cover only about 2% of the earth’s land surface, ecologists estimate that they contain at least half of the earth’s known terrestrial plant a...